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Observe how molecules of different sizes pass through a semi-permeable cell membrane. This simulates how cell membranes allow some substances to pass through while blocking others.

In the 1920s, Czech playwright Karel Čapek introduced the word “robot” in his play R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots). Derived from the Czech word “robota,” meaning forced labor, the term described artificial humans created to work in factories. A century later, robots and automation systems have transcended science fiction to become integral parts of our world—manufacturing our goods, exploring distant planets, performing delicate surgeries, and even vacuuming our homes.

For over 70 years, classical computers have transformed our world, enabling everything from space exploration to smartphones. These machines, regardless of their size or power, all operate on the same fundamental principle: processing bits of information that exist in one of two states—0 or 1. This binary approach has served us remarkably well, but we’re beginning to encounter problems so complex that classical computers would take impractical amounts of time to solve them—billions of years in some cases.

The human brain—a three-pound universe of approximately 86 billion neurons—remains one of the most complex and fascinating structures in existence. Despite centuries of study, we’ve only begun to understand how this remarkable organ creates our thoughts, emotions, memories, and consciousness itself. Neuroscience stands at this frontier, working to decode the intricate processes that make us who we are.